Comprehension of Texts

“Everyone’s Doing It”

We mentioned at the beginning of this module that our culture is one of information and one has to be able to absorb an extraordinary amount of information on a daily basis. Whether it’s through print, radio, television, or the web, every waking moment is, essentially, an opportunity for someone to tell you or sell you something.

Students, like all of us, must be able to quickly recognize common types of unreliable information if they’re to make informed decisions about their lives and the world around them.

Earlier we discussed several organizational structures authors use to convey information. Authors often use persuasive techniques within these structures to build an argument for or against a particular topic or idea.

One way to teach students to identify persuasive language is to have them examine the logic of a particular idea or argument and use graphic organizers to evaluate the reasoning.

Once Upon a Time…

The poet Muriel Rukeyser once said, “The universe is made up of stories, not of atoms.” Though scientifically inaccurate, the sentiment behind Rukeyser’s words is true enough: our realities are constructed from stories—historical, cultural, and personal narratives—that help us define ourselves and understand the world around us.

Whether it’s a fable about a little girl attempting to visit her grandmother or an epic sonnet that details the journey of a fictional hero, narrative texts convey stories that ignite our imaginations and give us insight into thoughts and feelings beyond our own experience.

Comprehension strategies encourage careful reading that allows a student to interpret narrative texts beyond literal meaning. By asking questions before, during, and after reading, students are able to make connections between their own life and the life of the story. Summarizing and making generalizations supported with examples from texts encourages deep processing that is essential to developing language skills.

Learning to interpret story elements such as plot, theme, characterization, setting, and point of view will help students understand the building blocks of a story and allow them to identify how an author uses structure and language to convey meaning across a wide variety of genres.

Take a look at the chart below to review some key terms before we discuss these story elements in further detail.

What Makes a Story?

At the heart of every story is the plot, or skeleton—the sequence of events that takes place from beginning to end. There are five components to plot:

• Conflict: the inciting incident, what begins the story
• Rising action: the events created by the conflict
• Climax: the highest point or turning point of a story
• Denouement or falling action: where the conflict becomes unraveled
• Resolution: how the conflict is resolved

Writers vary plot structure depending on the needs of a story. These basic elements are the building blocks of narratives and can be found in every story.

One way to have students learn simple story structure is to familiarize them with a wide variety of fairy tales, fables, myths, folktales, and legends as these stories tend to be linear in nature and contain predictable outcomes that will allow students to recognize how an author uses plot to frame sequential events.

Let’s take a look at how the elements of plot combine to create the classic tale “Rumpelstiltskin.”

Rumpelstiltskin

Once there was a miller who was poor, but who had a beautiful daughter. Now it happened that he had to go and speak to the king, and in order to make himself appear important he said to him, “I have a daughter who can spin straw into gold.”

The king said to the miller, “That is an art which pleases me well, if your daughter is as clever as you say, bring her tomorrow to my palace, and I will put her to the test.” And when the girl was brought to him he took her into a room which was quite full of straw, gave her a spinning-wheel and a reel, and said, “Now set to work, and if by tomorrow morning early you have not spun this straw into gold during the night, you must die.”

Thereupon he himself locked up the room, and left her in it alone. So there sat the poor miller’s daughter, and for the life of her could not tell what to do, she had no idea how straw could be spun into gold, and she grew more and more frightened, until at last she began to weep.

But all at once the door opened, and in came a little man, and said, “Good evening, mistress miller, why are you crying so?”

“Alas,” answered the girl, “I have to spin straw into gold, and I do not know how to do it.”

“What will you give me,” said the manikin, “if I do it for you?”

“My necklace,” said the girl.

The little man took the necklace, seated himself in front of the wheel, and whirr, whirr, whirr, three turns, and the reel was full, then he put another on, and whirr, whirr, whirr, three times round, and the second was full too. And so it went on until the morning, when all the straw was spun, and all the reels were full of gold.

By daybreak the king was already there, and when he saw the gold he was astonished and delighted, but his heart became only more greedy. He had the miller’s daughter taken into another room full of straw, which was much larger, and commanded her to spin that also in one night if she valued her life.

The girl knew not how to help herself, and was crying, when the door opened again, and the little man appeared, and said, “What will you give me if I spin that straw into gold for you?”

“The ring on my finger,” answered the girl.

The little man took the ring, again began to turn the wheel, and by morning had spun all the straw into glittering gold.

The king rejoiced beyond measure at the sight, but still he had not gold enough, and he had the miller’s daughter taken into a still larger room full of straw, and said, “You must spin this, too, in the course of this night, but if you succeed, you shall be my wife.” Even if she be a miller’s daughter, thought he, I could not find a richer wife in the whole world.

When the girl was alone the manikin came again for the third time, and said, “What will you give me if I spin the straw for you this time also?”

“I have nothing left that I could give,” answered the girl.

“Then promise me, if you should become queen, to give me your first child.”

Who knows whether that will ever happen, thought the miller’s daughter, and, not knowing how else to help herself in this strait, she promised the manikin what he wanted, and for that he once more spun the straw into gold. And when the king came in the morning, and found all as he had wished, he took her in marriage, and the pretty miller’s daughter became a queen.

A year later, she brought a beautiful child into the world, and she never gave a thought to the manikin. But suddenly he came into her room, and said, “Now give me what you promised.” The queen was horror-struck, and offered the manikin all the riches of the kingdom if he would leave her the child. But the manikin said, “No, something alive is dearer to me than all the treasures in the world.” Then the queen began to lament and cry, so that the manikin pitied her.

“I will give you three days, time,” said he, “if by that time you find out my name, then shall you keep your child.”

So the queen thought the whole night of all the names that she had ever heard, and she sent a messenger over the country to inquire, far and wide, for any other names that there might be. When the manikin came the next day, she began with Caspar, Melchior, Balthazar, and said all the names she knew, one after another, but to every one the little man said, “That is not my name.”

On the second day she had inquiries made in the neighborhood as to the names of the people there, and she repeated to the manikin the most uncommon and curious. Perhaps your name is Shortribs, or Sheepshanks, or Laceleg, but he always answered, “That is not my name.”

On the third day the messenger came back again, and said, “I have not been able to find a single new name, but as I came to a high mountain at the end of the forest, where the fox and the hare bid each other good night, there I saw a little house, and before the house a fire was burning, and round about the fire quite a ridiculous little man was jumping, he hopped upon one leg, and shouted—

‘To-day I bake, to-morrow brew,
the next I’ll have the young queen’s child.
Ha, glad am I that no one knew
that Rumpelstiltskin I am styled.’”

You may imagine how glad the queen was when she heard the name. And when soon afterwards the little man came in, and asked, “Now, mistress queen, what is my name?”

At first she said, “Is your name Conrad?”

“No.”

“Is your name Harry?”

“No.”

“Perhaps your name is Rumpelstiltskin?”

“The devil has told you that! The devil has told you that,” cried the little man, and in his anger he plunged his right foot so deep into the earth that his whole leg went in, and then in rage he pulled at his left leg so hard with both hands that he tore himself in two.

“Rumpelstiltskin” is often interpreted as a story of good triumphing over evil. Though this particular tale begs some larger questions that we’ll examine when we discuss characterization, in terms of plot, “Rumpelstiltskin” follows a linear pattern that we’ve mapped out below.

Rumpelstiltskin

Fables, folktales, fairy tales, myths, and legends are short stories generally considered as teaching tales in the sense they often provide us with a moral or lesson. Many of these tales have been passed down through an oral tradition of storytelling that has led to interpretations across cultures. Familiarizing students with tales and legends from around the world not only provides students with a unique insight into a variety of cultures but also helps them identify universal themes and recognize the impact of folklore on our shared history.

You should be familiar with the similarities and differences of these types of stories as outlined in the chart below.

Before we move on to the elements that move a story beyond literal meaning, let’s take a look at how the information we’ve covered might be presented in a test question.

Review

• The basic story elements of narrative texts are plot, theme, characterization, setting, and point of view.
• Plot is the sequence of events that takes place in a story including the conflict, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution.
• Fables have a moral or lesson and very often personify an object or animal.
• Folktales stem from an oral tradition and contain the beliefs and customs of a region or country.
• Fairy tales are a type of folktale that may use elements of royalty, magic, enchantment, and the supernatural.
• Myths (or mythology) are stories that use the supernatural (gods, goddesses) to interpret natural events.
• Legends are stories based on a real-life hero and his or her mighty deeds.

What Gives a Story Meaning?

Themes are perhaps the most difficult story element for new readers to identify. Themes are often inferred or implied, and readers must analyze all the elements of a story: plot, characterization, setting, and point of view, in order to interpret the one or many themes a particular text may have.

Now that we’ve mentioned Dorothy, let’s look at some of the themes in The Wizard of Oz as examples. The most obvious theme is repeated as an incantation at the story’s climax: “There’s no place like home.” Dorothy tells us, in essence, to appreciate the gifts we have and that the grass is not always greener on the other side. Other themes force us to dig a little deeper—but not much. The theme of appearance vs. reality can be found throughout The Wizard of Oz. Take, for example, the characters of the Scarecrow, the Cowardly Lion, and the Tin Man, who show us that individuals are ultimately defined by their integrity and not their outward appearance. Another example is the wizard himself, who is just a normal man hiding behind a powerful facade. In fact, the entire text of The Wizard of Oz supports this theme given the fact that Dorothy’s adventure in Oz was all just a dream.

Earlier we touched on the subject of universal themes found in folklore from around the world. One such theme, the hero’s quest, is evident in the text of The Wizard of Oz as well. The archetypal hero can be found in texts throughout history—from Hercules to Harry Potter. Generally born to adversity, heroes have gifts or abilities that enable them to overcome all odds and perform extraordinary deeds. These powers are sometimes not only of the body but also of the mind.

You may want to have students identify tales across texts that embody the hero’s quest and to compare and contrast the wide variety of interpretations. Though heroes come in all shapes and sizes, they share a common trait in strength of character, despite their respective goals.

What Brings a Story to Life?

No story, no matter how interesting, will come to life without good characters. Well-drawn characters give us access to the thoughts and emotions of a story and allow an author to represent a variety of experiences within a text. Characters embody plot. As we saw in The Wizard of Oz—it’s not just a girl who goes to see a man; it’s Dorothy who goes to see the Wizard. Understanding the components of characterization is crucial to our interpretation of any narrative texts.

Characterization is made up of three elements:

• Appearance: how a character looks: physical features, clothing, etc.
• Personality: how a character thinks and feels
• Behavior: how a character acts and reacts

Authors use characters to move the action of a story forward as well as convey deeper thematic content as we saw in the previous examples. Sometimes characters are what they appear to be. Good and evil have been locked in opposition throughout history so archetypal heroes have archetypal villains. Often, however, an author will use characterization to upset our expectations: heroes are flawed, and villains have a change of heart.

In other instances, characters leave us with more questions than answers, and we must analyze their actions to divine deeper meaning. Case in point: “Rumpelstiltskin.”

Let’s move back to the story briefly to examine how characterization moves the plot and supports some underlying themes.

There’s no denying that Rumpelstiltskin is a dark character and out for no good, but it’s interesting to note that although he’s the only character we view as evil, he is also the only character who demonstrates compassion. Aside from the queen’s desire to protect her child, every action of the rest of the characters in the story is negative. Every character lies or values money over life and love but Rumpelstiltskin. His motives, though perhaps evil, are honest. Though at first glance the story seems straightforward, the author’s use of characterization provides us with a fairly complex story that leaves us with a central question: who is this “manikin” exactly, and what does he represent?

If we examine the motivations of the characters, we see that greed, status, and personal gain top the list. Rumpelstiltskin plays on these desires. He is small, not quite human, a character who lurks in the shadows and dances in the outermost regions of the woods. We might view him as the devil or a demon, or perhaps the dark part of every human nature. In this sense, “Rumpelstiltskin” can be interpreted as a cautionary tale that warns us of the hazards inspired by greed and boasting.

Every action of every character in a story moves the plot forward. It is through characters that the drama of a story is revealed. What a character does, thinks, and says determines the outcome of a story, and, just as often, setting determines his or her behavior.

Where and When?

Setting is the time and place the action of a story unfolds. Authors use specific details to create an environment that provides us with information about characters, plot, and thematic meaning. Setting might include details about the weather, time of day, location, landscape, era—even the particulars of a given room (chipped paint, peeling wallpaper, an unmade bed) paint a portrait that allows us to visualize the world our characters inhabit.

Who’s Telling the Story?

Point of view refers to the narrator of the story. Writers use point of view as a device to achieve a certain tone or style or to relate a desired perspective of a story. The most common points of view are first-person, third-person limited, and third-person omniscient.

• First-person: Narrator is a character in the story and is personally affected by plot and setting. Narrator often uses pronouns such as I or we.
• Third-person limited: Narrator tells the story and knows everything about the protagonist or main character. Essentially we view the story through the eyes of one character.
• Third-person omniscient: Narrator knows what all characters, protagonists, and antagonists think, feel, and do.

Let’s take a look at how some of these elements combine in Mark Twain’s The Prince and the Pauper.

Notice how Twain uses setting to underscore the disparity between the boys and shape our expectations of events to come. With the details in this opening chapter, we not only have a clear image of the time and place (London in the sixteenth century) but also of the circumstances surrounding the boy (Edward Tudor, long-awaited son of Henry VIII—and the reason he had so many wives). Twain’s use of a third-person omniscient narrator gives him the ability to tell the story from a variety of perspectives: across characters and across time.

Review

• Plot is the sequence of events that take place in a story including the conflict, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution.
• Theme is the underlying message of a story. Characterization, plot, setting, and point of view all contribute to a story’s theme.
• Characterization is made up of three elements: appearance, personality, and behavior.
• Setting details include the time (historical and otherwise) and place of a story.
• Point of view refers to the narrator of the story. The most common points of view are first-person, third-person limited, and third-person omniscient.

Objective

In this next section, we’ll review some specific devices that authors use to shape their language. We’ll also see how the form that authors use influences the effect on the reader.

Previously Covered

At this point, you should be familiar with the basic literary elements of narrative text including plot, setting, and point of view, and how authors use these elements to convey underlying meaning or themes. You should also be familiar with the similarities and differences between fables, fairy tales, folktales, myths, and legends.

Precision of language is key to an author’s craft. An author’s word choice determines whether a story is simply good or great, full of surprises or fraught with confusion. Word choice and description not only set the tone or mood of a particular story but also relate important information to the reader about setting, plot, character, and ultimately theme.

Authors use dialogue to convey any and all information about a particular character’s age, culture, education, gender, personality, historical era, beliefs, etc. Dialogue brings a character to life and makes a story believable.

Let’s look at the opening of Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.

Diction refers to the way a character speaks. Huck speaks in a very particular diction that is appropriate to his age, lack of education, historical time period, and upbringing. Twain uses Huck’s dialogue purposefully to underscore the effect of Huck’s awakening at the end of the novel.

Authors use imagery and symbolism to create a certain mood in a story. To borrow another example from The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, we see the river throughout the book as a constant symbol of freedom, independence, and life in the wild. The river typifies the life Huck wants to live and the freedom due Jim, and by extension, all slaves in the South.

Allegories are stories or poems in which an author uses animals or objects to represent moral, political, or religious meaning. In Animal Farm, George Orwell uses animals to critique the tyranny of totalitarianism and bases many events in the book on the Soviet Union during the Stalin era.

Figurative language refers to an author’s use of a word or phrase that is not intended for literal interpretation. You’ll want to be familiar with the different types of figurative language as outlined in the chart below.

Authors use figurative language for a variety of purposes. As we discussed with the example of symbolism, figurative language can provide a reader with subtext that hints at deeper meanings in a story and can also provide ornamentation that supports and creates a desired mood or response.

Though personification, metaphors, similes, and alliteration are used across a wide variety of texts, poetry, perhaps most notably, makes use of figurative language for its aesthetic qualities and its ability to convey deep meaning with economy.

Form and Function

Literary genres are types of writing that each employs unique conventions. At the most basic level, literary genres are divided into poetry, prose, and drama, with sub-categories within those classifications.

Authors use specific genres to gain a desired effect. In literature, form does indeed equal function. Students should be aware of the distinctions that differentiate one facet of literature from another as well as how these genres have developed over time and across a variety of cultures.

Review

• Authors use careful word choice and description to set the tone or mood of a story.
• Figurative language refers to an author’s use of a word or phrase that is not intended for literal interpretation.
• Dialogue consists of the words a character says; diction is the particular way he or she says it.
• Allegories are stories or poems in which an author uses animals or objects to represent moral, political, or religious meaning.
• Symbolism refers to an author’s use of a motif to represent a story’s subtext.
• Alliteration refers to the repetition of initial consonant sounds in two or more words or syllables.
• Hyperbole is an exaggeration, usually with humor.
• Metaphors are comparisons between two things using one kind of object in place of another to suggest the likeness between the two.
• Personification is language that endows objects or nature with human qualities.
• Simile refers to an author’s use of “like” or “as” in a comparison.
• Literary genres are divided into poetry, prose, and drama, with sub-categories within those classifications.
• Plays are dramatic works intended for performance by actors on a stage.
• Poetry is literature written in metrical verse.
• Prose is fiction and nonfiction that attempts to mirror the language of everyday speech.