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Analyzing Arguments

Objective

In this lesson, you will learn how to recognize and analyze some of the most common forms of arguments.

Previously Covered:

In the previous lesson we discussed what an argument is, and defined terms such as conclusion, premise, and warrant in order to gain a greater perspective on the basics of argumentation.

What Are Some Common Types of Arguments?

1. Argument by cause and effect

One of the most frequently employed types of arguments is an argument by cause and effect. Arguments by cause and effect attempt to demonstrate that an otherwise mysterious state of affairs is the direct result of some other factor.

Both of the following arguments are arguments by cause and effect:

The emission of greenhouse gases causes global warming.

Eating chili gives Rick heartburn.

Cause-and-effect arguments can be divided into two main varieties:

Arguments of Difference	Cause and effect arguments that attempt to explain the dissimilarities between two situations by isolating a single difference between them.
Arguments of Similarity	Cause and effect arguments that try to explain the fact that numerous situations are similar to each other by isolating a single commonality between them.

The global warming argument above is an argument of difference. It compares one situation—the present, when the earth’s temperature is steadily rising—to another—a previous time when the earth’s temperature was basically static—and concludes that the factor that has created the difference between those two situations is the emission of greenhouse gases.

By contrast, the argument about eating chili is an argument of similarity. It evaluates all the situations in which Rick has gotten heartburn and tries to find a single factor that was present in all those situations. Its conclusion is that that factor is eating chili.

Let’s look at some more cause-and effect-arguments.

Question

Which of the following is an example of a cause-and-effect argument that is an argument of difference?

In each of the last ten years, there has been a riot on the last night of the county fair. Those have been the only riots in the last ten years. Therefore, there will be a riot on the last night of this year’s county fair.
Brad drinks heavily. Laura does not drink at all. Brad has cirrhosis, but Laura does not. Therefore, Brad’s cirrhosis must be the result of his drinking.
I like skiing a lot better than rock climbing because it’s faster paced and gives you better exercise.
Elise, Jorge, Kim, and Dave all own dogs, and all their dogs became better behaved once they were four years old. Melanie owns a dog that is about to turn four, so Melanie’s dog is about to become better behaved.

Reveal Answer

2. Argument by Analogy

Arguments by analogy attempt to prove that an object, person, or situation has a certain characteristic by claiming that other, similar objects, persons, or situations have the same characteristic.

The argument about dogs above illustrates the basic principles of argument by analogy.

Principle	Example
1) It establishes that a group of similar objects shares a common characteristic	The dogs belonging to Elise, Jorge, Kim and Dave all became better-behaved upon turning four.
2) It establishes that a particular object is similar to the objects in that group	Melanie’s dog is similar to the others: it’s a dog, and it’s about to turn four.
3) It concludes that the particular object will demonstrate the characteristic shared by the group	Melanie’s dog will probably become better-behaved once it turns four.

The greater the similarities between the object in the conclusion and the objects in the premises, the stronger the argument by analogy is.

For example, if the first part argument above instead read, “ . . . all own female Chihuahuas that they bought from the same breeder and have owned for more than three years,” and all of those traits also applied to Melanie’s dog, we would have an even stronger reason to believe that the conclusion is true.

3. Logical argument

Logical arguments are more commonly found in writing, especially academic writing, than they are in speeches or debates. Logical arguments attempt to establish the truth of a conclusion through straightforward and self-evident forms of reasoning. Logical arguments can either be deductive or inductive.

A deductive argument is one that claims to provide definitive and incontrovertible evidence for the truth of its conclusion. The following is an example of a deductive argument.

All soft drinks are carbonated.
Pepsi is a soft drink.
Therefore, Pepsi is carbonated.

A valid deductive argument is one that succeeds in that aim. That is, if the premises of a valid deductive argument are true, then the conclusion absolutely must be true. The argument above is a valid deductive argument.

If all of the premises of a deductive argument are true, but the conclusion is still not true, then the argument is said to be invalid.

An inductive argument is one that claims only to provide some amount of support for its conclusion. If an inductive argument’s premises are true, its conclusion most likely is true, but it does not have to be. For example,

Most basketball players are tall. Linda is a basketball player. Therefore, Linda is probably tall.

If the premises of that argument are true, we have some reason to believe that Linda is tall, but we can’t guarantee it.

Let’s highlight that distinction by looking at some more arguments.

Question

Which of the following is an example of a deductive argument?

All fifty states saw a reduction in infant mortality when they joined the union. Therefore, Puerto Rico is likely to see a reduction in infant mortality if it ever becomes a state.
No dogs are cats, and no cats are birds; therefore no dogs are birds.
Most water is cold, and the liquid in that glass is water, so the liquid in that glass is probably cold.
On each of the first six days of this week, I ate breakfast and then finished the crossword puzzle. Today I didn’t eat breakfast, and I also couldn’t finish the crossword puzzle. Therefore, I couldn’t finish the crossword today because I didn’t eat breakfast.

Reveal Answer

4. Appeal to authority

An appeal to authority argues that a conclusion should be accepted as true because an expert with specialized knowledge of the matter believes that it is true. Appeals to authority are quite common in everyday interaction:

People should wash their hands regularly because doctors say doing so prevents disease.

You should wear your seat belt because transportation department studies show that seat belts save lives.

We should go see this movie because the movie critic gave it four stars.

The hallmark of an appeal to authority is the substitution of the claim that an expert holds a given belief in the place of an explanation for the reasoning that led to that belief.

Here’s a question you can use to practice identifying this type of argument.

Question

Which of the following choices replaces this argument’s premises with a relevant appeal to authority?

The best way for Sung to prevent his air conditioner from leaking is to replace the condensate tube. It’s supposed to be flexible, but age and buildup on the tube’s interior have caused it to become brittle. That brittle rubber is prone to puncture or rupture, which would cause a leak.

The best way for Sung to prevent his air conditioner from leaking is to replace the condensate tube. Replacing the condensate tube helps prevent radiators, lawnmowers, and fish tanks from leaking, so it will probably work on the AC, too.
The best way for Sung to prevent his air conditioner from leaking is to replace the condensate tube. Most condensate tubes are prone to leaking, so it’s likely that Sung’s is prone to leaking, too.
The best way for Sung to prevent his air conditioner from leaking is to replace the condensate tube. There’s no doubt that that’s true; a telephone psychic told him.
The best way for Sung to prevent his air conditioner from leaking is to replace the condensate tube. I talked to my aunt, who repairs HVACs for a living, and that’s what she told me.

Reveal Answer

Review

An argument by cause and effect attempts to demonstrate that an otherwise mysterious state of affairs is the direct result of some other factor.
An argument of difference attempts to explain the dissimilarities between two situations by isolating a single difference between them.
An argument of similarity tries to explain the fact that numerous situations are similar to each other by isolating a single commonality between them.
An argument by analogy attempts to prove that an object, person, or situation has a certain characteristic by claiming that other, similar objects, persons, or situations have the same characteristic.
A logical argument attempts to establish the truth of a conclusion through straightforward and self-evident forms of reasoning.
A deductive argument is a logical argument that claims to provide definitive and incontrovertible evidence for the truth of its conclusion.
An inductive argument is a logical argument that claims only to provide some support for its conclusion.
An appeal to authority argues that a conclusion should be accepted as true because an expert with specialized knowledge of the matter believes that it is true.

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