In the Meantime: Denotation & Connotation

English Defined: Denotations

Denotations are what we find in dictionaries: literal meanings of words. They include the features that distinguish one concept or object from all others. A dictionary includes a denotation when that meaning is in wide use among speakers. Some denotations make English look very illogical. A prime example is cleave , which means both “to split” and “to stick.” A look at this word’s etymology reveals that the two meanings come from two Anglo-Saxon words that were very similar in pronunciation: cleofan and cleofian, respectively.

Cleave also demonstrates how words can gain additional meanings: when you cleave to your loved ones or to certain ideas, you are stuck to them not literally, but metaphorically. In this way, a word’s literal meaning gains an abstract one. This leap is accomplished through metaphor. Metaphor is probably the most common means by which words take on new meanings: sharp, bitter, sour , and down are a few examples. Incidentally, a garlic clove gets its name from cleave, meaning a split part, whereas the spice clove came into Middle English as clowe from a French word for nail.

As you can see, denotations can be tricky. A single word can have a large number of denotations and derivatives. Here’s a short list of some deceptive words:

• Go : from uncertain origins; to move, to walk, to function (e.g., a watch), to elapse, to leave, to die
• Like : from Anglo-Saxon; this word can be a noun, verb, preposition and conjunction, and each part of speech has a number of denotations
• Nice : from French; denotations include precise, fussy, virtuous, slight, exact, tasty, and kind
• Want : from Old Norse; denotations include shortage, to lack, to come short, to desire

This brief excursion through denotations should explain why the dictionary is both a necessary and ever-changing tool.

Suggestive English: Connotations

A word can have not only denotations, but also connotations. Connotations are the associated meanings a word may have beyond its literal or denotative meaning. Connotations are rarely found in the dictionary. For example, water denotes a liquid made from two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, but it has connotations of baptism or tears; earth denotes a planet or dirt, but it could connote fertility, firmness, and stability. Thus, denotations are the primary, literal meanings, whereas connotations are the secondary, figurative meanings of words. As a matter of fact, connotations appear in similes and <1. A figure of speech that compares two unlike things without using “like” or “as”

2. Linguistics: the principal language change process; occurs when a word with a concrete meaning gains abstract meaning; from the Greek roots meta “beyond” and phor “to bear”>metaphors.

Connotations of words can range between negative, neutral, and positive:

Note that each group contains synonyms, which are words that mean almost the same thing. Sometimes, the only difference among synonyms is their connotative or figurative sense.

The Same Difference: Synonyms and Antonyms

Our examination of denotations and connotations brought up the subject of synonyms, but they require more than a passing mention, as do their trusty counterparts, antonyms. Synonyms (Greek syn ‘together’ + onyma ‘name’) are words that are similar in meaning. Sometimes they are practically identical. Antonyms (Greek anti ‘equal to’ + onyma ‘name’) are words that are opposite in meaning.

Learning synonyms and antonyms improves your vocabulary. Here’s a list of some common words with less common synonyms; you can test your linguistic acumen:

• Discussion: parley, colloquy, discourse, deliberation
• Fatigue: lassitude, exhaustion, prostration, weariness
• Saying: aphorism, maxim, saw
• Wandering: errant, itinerant, gallivanting, peripatetic, wayfaring
• Lie: fabricate, fib, prevaricate

And here is a separate (but equal) list of antonyms:

• Grand: lowly, mean, meretricious, petty, trifling
• Cynical: maudlin, naïve, idealistic, schmaltzy
• Shameful: creditable, laudable, meritorious
• Bawdy: innocuous, prudish, Victorian
• Wholesome: lethal, insalubrious, noxious

Birds of a Feather: Homonyms, Homophones, and Homographs

Now we can switch gears and look at words that are remarkable not for their meanings but for their spellings and pronunciations. From the Greek word homos (same), homonyms, homophones, and homographs share features that can be a source of confusion or fun for the user. Puns often rely on these similarities, for instance. Here’s a table to sort out the similarities and differences of these word classes:

The Name Game: Homonyms

A literal translation of homonym is “same name.” Narrowly defined, homonyms are words that are spelled and pronounced the same but that differ in meaning. Most of the time, we can trace homonyms through their etymologies to find that they were once completely different words. The shared spellings are accidents of language history.

Fair is a great example of a homonym. “We went to the fair on a fair day and hoped for a fair chance to enjoy the attractions.” Each of these three uses of fair has the same pronunciation but a different meaning. Let’s take a closer look at each homonym and its etymology:

• Fair (noun): from Old French feyre, a gathering
• Fair (adjective): from Anglo-Saxon fær, beautiful
• Fair (adjective) from Anglo-Saxon fær, a later denotation meaning “just”

Here’s a list of more examples:

• Bark: outer layer of a tree; sound a dog makes, a boat
• Bow: to bend, to salute, the forward part of a ship
• Lie: an untruth, to tell an untruth, to rest
• Miss: to fail, to escape, a young woman
• Quail: a bird, to cower

Hooked on Phonics: Homophones

Homophones (Greek homo “same ” + phonos “sound “) are words that sound the same, but have different spellings and meanings. They are probably the most problematic words for writers. Some very commonly confused homophones are affect/effect, lead/led, there/their/they’re, and it/it’s. Only one set of homophones has four unvarying members in all dialects of English: right/rite/write/wright. The group air/ere/err/heir is homophonous for many speakers.

Here’s a table of homophonous pairs:

Here’s a table of triple homophones:

Please note that many of these words have a variety of denotations, even though only one is given.

Graphic Language: Homographs

Homographs (Greek homo “same” + graphein ” ‘to write ” ’) are words that are spelled the same but have different meanings and pronunciations. These words are most troublesome to foreigners, and native English speakers only know the pronunciation from the context.

A fair number of homographs occur when the word changes parts of speech, e.g., from noun to verb. Here’s a short list:

• Produce (vegetables) and produce (to make)
• Content (substance) and content (satisfied)
• Compound (a word combination) and compound (to combine)
• Present (a gift) and present (to introduce)
• Read (past tense) and read (present tense)
• Entrance (way in) and entrance (bewitch)

Other homographs don’t seem to have any rhyme or reason. Here’s a list:

• Bass (fish) and bass (string instrument)
• Wind (air) and wind (to coil)
• Wound (injury) and wound (coiled)
• Incense (smoke) and incense (to enrage)
• Dove (bird) and dove (past tense of dive)