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Argument

Objective

Review the different components of an argument.

Previously Covered:

Persuasive writing is used by an author who wants to change the opinion of the audience and encourage action of some kind. Persuasive writing should include a stated topic, the author’s opinion, and logical arguments supported by relevant evidence. We’ll address the argument aspect of persuasive writing next.

What Is an Argument?

An argument does not necessarily involve screaming and shouting. In literary terms, an argument should be a fair and rational presentation of issues and ideas presented in the hopes of persuading people to take action or change behavior.

What is Logical Reasoning?

When critically evaluating persuasive writing, consider whether the writer’s reasoning is logical. Two types of logical reasoning are inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning.

Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning involves observing a limited number of cases to reach a general conclusion. Most scientific arguments take the inductive approach, as in the following example:

This polar bear is white and that polar bear is white. All five thousand polar bears I have seen are white. Therefore, all polar bears are white.

Figure 1: Inductive Logic: Moves from the Specific to the General

Deductive Reasoning

A writer takes a general statement and through the process of reasoning applies it to specific situations. Deductive reasoning is most often used in philosophy. We’ll get to an example in just a moment.

Figure 2: Deductive Reasoning: Moves from the General to the Specific

A syllogism is a form of deductive reasoning. It consists of a series of three propositions, with the first two implying the third, which is the conclusion. The following example is a syllogism.

Major premise: All men are mortal.

Minor premise: Brad Pitt is a man.

Conclusion: Therefore, Brad Pitt is mortal.

Modes of Arguments

While some arguments rely on observations, statistics, and reasons for validity, others depend on types of appeals. These types of appeals are found primarily in advertisements, political discussions, the media, and in normal daily discourse.

The following chart provides an overview of the most frequently utilized types of arguments or appeals.

Modes of Arguments
Argument Type	Description	Example
Cause/Effect	An argument based on knowledge of a cause that leads to an effect	If you study for your test, you will earn a good grade.
Analogy	An argument that depends on a similarity between two things or states of affairs	Because the French fries on my plate are greasy and salty, the French fries at that other table must also be greasy and salty.
Authority	An argument that derives its strength externally from a reputable authority	According to the state senator, 30% of all traffic deaths in rural areas are related to alcohol.
Emotion	An argument that attempts to stir the emotions of the audience	Joe Politician wants to hurt the elderly by cutting prescription drug benefits.
Character	An argument that attempts to persuade by calling attention to the speaker’s character	Mr. Jones is a great guy, so you should believe what he says.

Solid evidence is key to an effective persuasive argument. Determining the credibility of evidence involves evaluating whether or not the writer is knowledgeable and honest. This brings us back to the author’s purpose. The purpose of persuasion is to change opinions and encourage people to take action, and as a critical reader, you need to keep the author and his or her goals in mind.

Where’s the Evidence?

Writers use all kinds of evidence to support a premise. Understanding which type of evidence is being used allows a person to determine whether it is valid.

As the following chart indicates, there are three main types of evidence used to support conclusions.

Evidence to Support Conclusions
Type of Evidence	Description	Example
Empirical	Scientific proof is gathered through carefully monitored studies or direct observation.	Studies have shown that 90% of regular smokers began the habit at, or before, age 18.
Anecdotal	A single example, observation, or subjective report is used to support a statement. Anecdotal evidence is not scientifically valid.	Eating fried food isn’t harmful. My grandfather ate fried chicken almost every day of his life and lived to be 92.
Logical	A structured argument is made based on known statements, events, or conditions. The true answer is the only one that really makes sense or is reasonable.	There was a trail of muddy paw prints all over the new white carpet. Someone must have let the dirty dog inside the house.

Question

What kind of evidence is used in the following statement?

According to the city manager’s office, one year after instigating a citywide teenage curfew, incidents of teenage car accidents dropped 20% and vandalism in the downtown area dropped 35%.

Empirical
Anecdotal
Logical
Critical

Reveal Answer

Review

When making critical evaluations of written work, it is important that you be able to make judgments about the credibility of the writer and the information presented. An argument that is well-organized and logical may contain evidence that is not reliable.

Consider the following when determining the merit of an argument and its evidence:

Determine the writer’s purpose. What is the motive of the author? How will the author benefit from an audience accepting his or her premise?
Consider the writer’s experience. What makes the writer an authority on the given subject? Does he or she have the respect of others in the field?
Evaluate the author’s information. Are the statements factual? Can they be proved? Are opinions stated as opinions or put forth as facts? Is there valid support for statements?

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