Rhetoric

The Art of Persuasion

Although it often has negative connotations, rhetoric is the art of persuasion in speaking or writing. Rhetorical features are the various persuasive devices or techniques used to effectively argue a case, such as figures of speech or analogies. This connotation is descended all the way from ancient Greece and a school of philosophers known as the Sophists who had developed the art of oratory into a means in and of itself. Form and flash in speaking was more important to them than making a good point or speaking the truth.

The Sophists aside, there is nothing intrinsically wrong with rhetoric. A rhetorical argument is merely one that is crafted to be as effective as possible. All expository writers, from the worst pundit to the greatest thinker, are therefore rhetoricians. What distinguishes one argument from another is the mode of exposition (that is, the means of organization the author applies to the presentation of information) and how the information is presented.

The following table explains a few rhetorical features often used in persuasive speaking and writing.

Patrick Henry, Thomas Paine, and Martin Luther King Jr. were all successful orators who understood that passion, clarity, and organization are essential elements of memorable, effective speeches. We will review a variety of rhetorical features that can be found in their speeches.

Patrick Henry stood before delegates at the Second Virginia Convention and issued a challenge to stand up against the British. A well-known orator, Patrick Henry used many different rhetorical features and literary devices to bring life to his speeches.

The following excerpt from his speech to the Second Virginia Convention indicates Henry’s fondness for using rhetorical questions.

Henry references the Bible in a literary allusion from the same speech, when he says, “It is only in this way that we can hope to arrive at truth, and fulfill the great responsibility which we hold to God and our country.” He uses imagery when he invites his audience to hear the colonists fighting the British with all their might. Henry writes, “The next gale that sweeps from the North will bring to our ears the clash of resounding arms!”

Soon after Patrick Henry urged delegates to support the Revolutionary War, Thomas Paine published a series of essays called The Crisis. Paine sympathized with the revolutionary forces, and in the “Crisis, No. 1” he urged others to support the troops.

When Paine refers to King George in the “Crisis, No. 1” as “a common murderer, a highwayman, or a housebreaker,” he is using hyperbole, which emphasizes the faults of the king through exaggeration. Paine also makes a persuasive point that the war is not an “offensive” by employing an analogy in the following passage:

Paine’s analogy about defending against a thief breaking into a house reiterates to his audience the fact that the Revolutionary War is necessary for self-preservation. Thomas Paine appeals to the audience’s feelings of loyalty, service, and responsibility in this persuasive plea to continue the fight against British rule.

Being able to recognize the rhetorical features used by writers, speakers, politicians, and advertisers is the first step to evaluating whether their arguments are sound.

Almost two hundred years after Patrick Henry spoke at the Second Virginia Convention, Martin Luther King Jr. gave his “I Have a Dream” speech of 1963. In this speech, King makes use of both metaphors and repetition. King repeats the phrase “one hundred years later” to emphasize his argument that life has not improved for African Americans since slavery’s abolition. Metaphors such as “manacles of segregation” and “chains of discrimination” provide a visual image to the audience and illustrate his point that African Americans are not actually free from slavery.

Depending on the point they are trying to make and the type of argument they select, authors have a choice of which rhetorical features to employ in order to achieve their goal of persuading readers to think or act in a certain way. Authors can also appeal to their readers by using tactics such as logic, humor, diplomacy, emotion, and analogy.

Logic

While other tactics tend to use more manipulative means of persuasion, the logical argument appeals directly to the reader’s intellect. The reader or listener is simply asked to follow a chain of reasoning from the premise through the supporting evidence to the conclusion—if the chain holds, the author must be correct. This tactic is as close as a writer can come to a mathematical proof; in fact, some ancient Greek philosophy, such as Zeno’s paradox, can be presented in mathematical terms.

Thomas Jefferson relied upon pure logic to support his argument in the Declaration of Independence. He states a premise—that American colonists must be able to clearly state their reasons for rebellion—and supports it with a series of historical facts (specifically, the list of King George’s wrongs against the colonists). The great Greek philosophers, including Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, also argued using logic.

Humor

The most common form of humor used in persuasive exposition is satire. Satirical humor can be used as a means of criticism without exposing the adversary to a direct attack. Because satire usually addresses widespread social problems, the satirical writer is very likely to be arguing against the reader’s politics or unconscious beliefs, thus making a direct attack unwise. Jonathan Swift’s essay “A Modest Proposal,” in which he lambastes contemporary society for its treatment of the poor, is a classic example of satire.

Diplomacy

The diplomatic argument uses flattery as a means of persuasion. The author or speaker may flatter his or her audience in the hopes of making them more sympathetic, or may use flattery and compliments to establish him- or herself in the audience’s perception as a sympathetic character. As a master rhetorician, Socrates was not above using false compliments as a way of advancing his argument. In the following excerpt from the beginning of the Apology (Plato’s collection of Socrates’ arguments), Socrates defends himself against the charge that he corrupts the youth of Athens with his teachings:

Emotion

The appeal to emotion relies on the least subtle of the rhetorical tactics, and its use generally signals a serious flaw in the author’s logic. Here, the author appeals to the audience’s strong, basic feelings, such as hatred and fear, which are likely to overwhelm any instinct to examine the argument or its conclusions in the cold light of logic or reason.

In The Prince, Machiavelli advocates that rulers use forceful speech for reasons of efficiency, as it is easier to rule people who fear you. Living memory proves him right. Adolf Hitler used hate and fear to inspire a highly civilized nation to forget all morality and degenerate into savagery, a tactic that remained successful for more than a decade.

The argument by emotion is not necessarily flawed, however. Some arguments are so fundamental that logic does not apply; the only way to present them is to appeal to the reader’s sympathy. The following passage is from Frederick Douglass’s “Independence Day speech at Rochester,” delivered June 4, 1852, in which Douglass points out that the concept of Independence Day is a mockery when millions of Americans are legally held as slaves:

Analogy

The argument by analogy relies upon comparison to make its point. Such arguments generally concern abstract subjects whose terms are difficult for the author to define clearly. Instead, the author illustrates his or her point by making a similar argument with which the reader is more likely to be familiar.

This rhetorical tactic is valid when the author uses it to illuminate difficult concepts by comparing them to the reader’s everyday experience. However, it is not a valid means of making or supporting an argument. Any argument that relies on analogy for proof is fallacious by definition. No matter how compelling an example the analogy may provide, it can never be more than like the main point being argued. Two things that are alike are not the same or even necessarily equivalent.

Look at the following example, Christ’s parable of the wise and foolish builders, taken from the New Testament’s Book of Matthew: