{"id":124,"date":"2017-09-04T06:30:22","date_gmt":"2017-09-04T06:30:22","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/americanboard.org\/Subjects\/english\/?page_id=124"},"modified":"2018-06-12T15:38:53","modified_gmt":"2018-06-12T15:38:53","slug":"analyzing-arguments","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/americanboard.org\/Subjects\/english\/analyzing-arguments\/","title":{"rendered":"Analyzing Arguments"},"content":{"rendered":"<div class=\"twelve columns\" style=\"margin-top: 10%;\">\n<div class=\"advance\"><a class=\"button button-primary\" href=\"http:\/\/americanboard.org\/Subjects\/english\/the-basics-of-argumentation\">\u2b05 Previous Lesson<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"button\" href=\"http:\/\/americanboard.org\/Subjects\/english\/speech\">Workshop Index<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"button button-primary\" href=\"http:\/\/americanboard.org\/Subjects\/english\/argumentative-fallacies\">Next Lesson \u27a1<\/a><\/div>\n<p><!-- CONTENT BEGINS HERE --><\/p>\n<h1 id=\"title\">Analyzing Arguments<\/h1>\n<h4>Objective<\/h4>\n<p>In this lesson, you will learn how to recognize and analyze some of the most common forms of arguments.<\/p>\n<p><!-- --><\/p>\n<h4>Previously Covered:<\/h4>\n<ul>\n<li>In the previous lesson we discussed what an argument is, and defined terms such as <em>conclusion, premise, <\/em>and<em> warrant <\/em>in order to gain a greater perspective on the basics of argumentation.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><!-- --><\/p>\n<section>\n<h3>What Are Some Common Types of Arguments?<\/h3>\n<p><strong> 1. Argument by cause and effect <\/strong><\/p>\n<p>One of the most frequently employed types of arguments is an <strong>argument by cause and effect. <\/strong>Arguments by cause and effect attempt to demonstrate that an otherwise mysterious state of affairs is the direct result of some other factor.<\/p>\n<p>Both of the following arguments are arguments by cause and effect:<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p class=\"style1\" align=\"left\">The emission of greenhouse gases causes global warming.<\/p>\n<p align=\"left\"><strong> Eating chili gives Rick heartburn. <\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Cause-and-effect arguments can be divided into two main varieties:<\/p>\n<div align=\"center\">\n<table border=\"0\" width=\"371\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"6\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"111\">\n<p align=\"center\"><b>Arguments of Difference<\/b><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td valign=\"top\" width=\"260\">\n<div align=\"left\">\n<p>Cause and effect arguments that attempt to explain the dissimilarities between two situations by isolating a single difference between them.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"111\">\n<p align=\"center\"><b>Arguments of Similarity<\/b><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td valign=\"top\" width=\"260\">\n<div align=\"left\">\n<p>Cause and effect arguments that try to explain the fact that numerous situations are similar to each other by isolating a single commonality between them.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<p>The global warming argument above is an argument of difference. It compares one situation\u2014the present, when the earth\u2019s temperature is steadily rising\u2014to another\u2014a previous time when the earth\u2019s temperature was basically static\u2014and concludes that the factor that has created the difference between those two situations is the emission of greenhouse gases.<\/p>\n<p>By contrast, the argument about eating chili is an argument of similarity. It evaluates all the situations in which Rick has gotten heartburn and tries to find a single factor that was present in all those situations. Its conclusion is that that factor is eating chili.<\/p>\n<p>Let\u2019s look at some more cause-and effect-arguments.<\/p>\n<section class=\"question\">\n<h4>Question<\/h4>\n<div>\n<p>Which of the following is an example of a cause-and-effect argument that is an argument of difference?<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>In each of the last ten years, there has been a riot on the last night of the county fair. Those have been the only riots in the last ten years. Therefore, there will be a riot on the last night of this year\u2019s county fair.<\/li>\n<li>Brad drinks heavily. Laura does not drink at all. Brad has cirrhosis, but Laura does not. Therefore, Brad\u2019s cirrhosis must be the result of his drinking.<\/li>\n<li>I like skiing a lot better than rock climbing because it\u2019s faster paced and gives you better exercise.<\/li>\n<li>Elise, Jorge, Kim, and Dave all own dogs, and all their dogs became better behaved once they were four years old. Melanie owns a dog that is about to turn four, so Melanie\u2019s dog is about to become better behaved.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<p><a class=\"button button-primary q-answer\"> Reveal Answer <\/a><\/p>\n<div class=\"q-reveal\" style=\"display: none;\"><span class=\"lesson_text\">Choice B is the argument by difference. Choice A is an argument by similarity, and Choice C is a statement of opinion. Choice D is an example of an argument by analogy.<\/span><\/div>\n<\/section>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>2. Argument by Analogy<\/h3>\n<p><strong> Arguments by analogy <\/strong> attempt to prove that an object, person, or situation has a certain characteristic by claiming that other, similar objects, persons, or situations have the same characteristic.<\/p>\n<p>The argument about dogs above illustrates the basic principles of argument by analogy.<\/p>\n<div align=\"center\">\n<table border=\"0\" width=\"548\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"6\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td valign=\"bottom\" nowrap=\"nowrap\" bgcolor=\"#003366\" width=\"251\">\n<p align=\"center\"><b><span style=\"color: white;\">Principle<\/span><\/b><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td valign=\"bottom\" nowrap=\"nowrap\" bgcolor=\"#003366\" width=\"297\">\n<p align=\"center\"><b><span style=\"color: white;\">Example<\/span><\/b><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"251\">\n<div align=\"left\">\n<p>1) It establishes that a group of similar objects shares a common characteristic<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/td>\n<td width=\"297\">\n<div align=\"left\">\n<p><i>The dogs belonging to Elise, Jorge, Kim and Dave all became better-behaved upon turning four.<\/i><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"251\">\n<div align=\"left\">\n<p>2) It establishes that a particular object is similar to the objects in that group<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/td>\n<td width=\"297\">\n<div align=\"left\">\n<p><i>Melanie&#8217;s dog is similar to the others: it&#8217;s a dog, and it&#8217;s about to turn four.<\/i><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"251\">\n<div align=\"left\">\n<p>3) It concludes that the particular object will demonstrate the characteristic shared by the group<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/td>\n<td width=\"297\">\n<div align=\"left\">\n<p><i>Melanie&#8217;s dog will probably become better-behaved once it turns four.<\/i><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<p>The greater the similarities between the object in the conclusion and the objects in the premises, the stronger the argument by analogy is.<\/p>\n<p>For example, if the first part argument above instead read, \u201c . . . all own female Chihuahuas that they bought from the same breeder and have owned for more than three years,\u201d and all of those traits also applied to Melanie\u2019s dog, we would have an even stronger reason to believe that the conclusion is true.<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>3. Logical argument<\/h3>\n<p>Logical arguments are more commonly found in writing, especially academic writing, than they are in speeches or debates. <a>Logical arguments<\/a> attempt to establish the truth of a conclusion through straightforward and self-evident forms of reasoning. Logical arguments can either be <a>deductive<\/a> or <a>inductive<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section>A deductive argument is one that claims to provide definitive and incontrovertible evidence for the truth of its conclusion. The following is an example of a deductive argument.<\/p>\n<div align=\"center\">\n<table border=\"0\" width=\"301\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"301\">\n<div align=\"left\">\n<p><b><i>All soft drinks are carbonated.<br \/>\nPepsi is a soft drink.<br \/>\nTherefore, Pepsi is carbonated<\/i><\/b>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<p>A valid deductive argument is one that succeeds in that aim. That is, if the premises of a valid deductive argument are true, then the conclusion absolutely must be true. The argument above is a valid deductive argument.<\/p>\n<p>If all of the premises of a deductive argument are true, but the conclusion is still not true, then the argument is said to be <a>invalid<\/a><strong>.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>An inductive argument is one that claims only to provide some amount of support for its conclusion. If an inductive argument\u2019s premises are true, its conclusion most likely is true, but it does not have to be. For example,<\/p>\n<div align=\"center\">\n<table border=\"0\" width=\"245\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"245\">\n<div align=\"left\">\n<p><b><i>Most basketball players are tall.\u00a0\u00a0 Linda is a basketball player.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Therefore, Linda is probably tall.<\/i><\/b><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<p>If the premises of that argument are true, we have some reason to believe that Linda is tall, but we can\u2019t guarantee it.<\/p>\n<p>Let\u2019s highlight that distinction by looking at some more arguments.<\/p>\n<section class=\"question\">\n<h4>Question<\/h4>\n<div>\n<p>Which of the following is an example of a deductive argument?<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>All fifty states saw a reduction in infant mortality when they joined the union. Therefore, Puerto Rico is likely to see a reduction in infant mortality if it ever becomes a state.<\/li>\n<li>No dogs are cats, and no cats are birds; therefore no dogs are birds.<\/li>\n<li>Most water is cold, and the liquid in that glass is water, so the liquid in that glass is probably cold.<\/li>\n<li>On each of the first six days of this week, I ate breakfast and then finished the crossword puzzle. Today I didn\u2019t eat breakfast, and I also couldn\u2019t finish the crossword puzzle. Therefore, I couldn\u2019t finish the crossword today because I didn\u2019t eat breakfast.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<p><a class=\"button button-primary q-answer\"> Reveal Answer <\/a><\/p>\n<div class=\"q-reveal\" style=\"display: none;\"><span class=\"lesson_text\">Choice B is a deductive argument, though it\u2019s tricky to identify it as such because it\u2019s an <em>invalid<\/em> deductive argument. Choice A is an argument by analogy, Choice C is an inductive argument, and Choice D is a cause-and-effect argument of difference.<\/span><\/div>\n<\/section>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>4. Appeal to authority<\/h3>\n<p>An appeal to authority argues that a conclusion should be accepted as true because an expert with specialized knowledge of the matter believes that it is true. Appeals to authority are quite common in everyday interaction:<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p align=\"left\"><strong> People should wash their hands regularly because doctors say doing so prevents disease.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p align=\"left\"><strong> You should wear your seat belt because transportation department studies show that seat belts save lives.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>\n<p align=\"left\"><strong> We should go see this movie because the movie critic gave it four stars. <\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>The hallmark of an appeal to authority is the substitution of the claim that an expert holds a given belief in the place of an explanation for the reasoning that led to that belief.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Here\u2019s a question you can use to practice identifying this type of argument.<\/p>\n<section class=\"question\">\n<h4>Question<\/h4>\n<div>\n<p>Which of the following choices replaces this argument\u2019s premises with a relevant appeal to authority?<\/p>\n<p>The best way for Sung to prevent his air conditioner from leaking is to replace the condensate tube. It\u2019s supposed to be flexible, but age and buildup on the tube\u2019s interior have caused it to become brittle. That brittle rubber is prone to puncture or rupture, which would cause a leak.<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>The best way for Sung to prevent his air conditioner from leaking is to replace the condensate tube. Replacing the condensate tube helps prevent radiators, lawnmowers, and fish tanks from leaking, so it will probably work on the AC, too.<\/li>\n<li>The best way for Sung to prevent his air conditioner from leaking is to replace the condensate tube. Most condensate tubes are prone to leaking, so it\u2019s likely that Sung\u2019s is prone to leaking, too.<\/li>\n<li>The best way for Sung to prevent his air conditioner from leaking is to replace the condensate tube. There\u2019s no doubt that that\u2019s true; a telephone psychic told him.<\/li>\n<li>The best way for Sung to prevent his air conditioner from leaking is to replace the condensate tube. I talked to my aunt, who repairs HVACs for a living, and that\u2019s what she told me.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<p><a class=\"button button-primary q-answer\"> Reveal Answer <\/a><\/p>\n<div class=\"q-reveal\" style=\"display: none;\">\n<p>Choice D is the correct answer. Instead of explaining the details of what would cause a leak, the argument appeals to the authority of a heating and air conditioning specialist, who we can trust knows very well how to prevent AC leaks.<\/p>\n<p>Choice A is an argument by analogy, and Choice B is an inductive argument. Choice C is also an appeal to authority, but the authority to which it appeals is not relevant to the argument\u2019s conclusion. This type of appeal to authority, as well as some other unreliable types of arguments, will be discussed in a later lesson.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>Review<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>An <strong>argument by cause and effect <\/strong>attempts to demonstrate that an otherwise mysterious state of affairs is the direct result of some other factor.<\/li>\n<li>An <strong>argument of difference <\/strong>attempts to explain the dissimilarities between two situations by isolating a single difference between them.<\/li>\n<li>An <strong>argument of similarity<\/strong> tries to explain the fact that numerous situations are similar to each other by isolating a single commonality between them.<\/li>\n<li>An<strong> argument by analogy <\/strong>attempts to prove that an object, person, or situation has a certain characteristic by claiming that other, similar objects, persons, or situations have the same characteristic.<\/li>\n<li>A <strong>logical argument<\/strong> attempts to establish the truth of a conclusion through straightforward and self-evident forms of reasoning.<\/li>\n<li>A <strong>deductive argument<\/strong> is a logical argument that claims to provide definitive and incontrovertible evidence for the truth of its conclusion.<\/li>\n<li>An <strong>inductive argument<\/strong> is a logical argument that claims only to provide some support for its conclusion.<\/li>\n<li>An <strong>appeal to authority<\/strong> argues that a conclusion should be accepted as true because an expert with specialized knowledge of the matter believes that it is true.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<hr \/>\n<\/section>\n<p><!-- CONTENT ENDS HERE --><\/p>\n<div class=\"advance\"><a class=\"button button-primary\" href=\"http:\/\/americanboard.org\/Subjects\/english\/the-basics-of-argumentation\">\u2b05 Previous Lesson<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"button\" href=\"http:\/\/americanboard.org\/Subjects\/english\/speech\">Workshop Index<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"button button-primary\" href=\"http:\/\/americanboard.org\/Subjects\/english\/argumentative-fallacies\">Next Lesson \u27a1<\/a><\/div>\n<p><a class=\"backtotop\" href=\"#title\">Back to Top<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>\u2b05 Previous Lesson\u00a0Workshop Index\u00a0Next Lesson \u27a1 Analyzing Arguments Objective In this lesson, you will learn how to recognize and analyze some of the most common forms of arguments. Previously Covered: In the previous lesson we discussed what an argument is, and defined terms such as conclusion, premise, and warrant in order to gain a greater [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-124","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/americanboard.org\/Subjects\/english\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/124","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/americanboard.org\/Subjects\/english\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/americanboard.org\/Subjects\/english\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/americanboard.org\/Subjects\/english\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/americanboard.org\/Subjects\/english\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=124"}],"version-history":[{"count":6,"href":"https:\/\/americanboard.org\/Subjects\/english\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/124\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":609,"href":"https:\/\/americanboard.org\/Subjects\/english\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/124\/revisions\/609"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/americanboard.org\/Subjects\/english\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=124"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}