{"id":48,"date":"2017-09-04T06:07:55","date_gmt":"2017-09-04T06:07:55","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/americanboard.org\/Subjects\/english\/?page_id=48"},"modified":"2017-09-18T16:05:09","modified_gmt":"2017-09-18T16:05:09","slug":"types-of-evidence-opinion-v-fact-authorial-bias","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/americanboard.org\/Subjects\/english\/types-of-evidence-opinion-v-fact-authorial-bias\/","title":{"rendered":"Types of Evidence, Opinion v. Fact, &#038; Authorial Bias"},"content":{"rendered":"<div class=\"twelve columns\" style=\"margin-top: 10%;\">\n<div class=\"advance\"><a class=\"button button-primary\" href=\"http:\/\/americanboard.org\/Subjects\/english\/functions-of-language-modes-of-exposition\">\u2b05 Previous Lesson<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"button\" href=\"http:\/\/americanboard.org\/Subjects\/english\/interpretation-of-expository-texts\">Workshop Index<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"button button-primary\" href=\"http:\/\/americanboard.org\/Subjects\/english\/logical-fallacies\">Next Lesson \u27a1<\/a><\/div>\n<p><!-- CONTENT BEGINS HERE --><\/p>\n<h1 id=\"title\">Types of Evidence, Opinion v. Fact, &amp; Authorial Bias<\/h1>\n<h4>Objective<\/h4>\n<p>In this lesson we will discuss how to evaluate an argument, the various types of evidence that supports logical\u00a0arguments, how to tell whether something is an opinion or fact, and authorial bias.<\/p>\n<p><!-- --><\/p>\n<h4>Previously Covered:<\/h4>\n<ul style=\"list-style: circle;\">\n<li>\n<div align=\"left\">Most expository writing attempts to persuade the reader to adopt a position or undertake a\u00a0certain course of action.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div align=\"left\">The modes of exposition (<strong>categorization, cause and effect, comparison and\u00a0contrast, <\/strong>and<strong> problem and solution<\/strong>) describe how the author chooses to structure\u00a0the evidence supporting his or her argument.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><!-- --><\/p>\n<section>\n<p class=\"lesson_subhead\"><strong> Evaluating an Argument<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>The success of a piece of expository writing can be judged from either of two perspectives: that of the casual\u00a0reader or the critical thinker. The casual reader may judge exposition as successful if it manages to convince him\u00a0or her that the author\u2019s position is sound. The quality of the argument is not as important as affecting the\u00a0audience.<\/p>\n<p>The critical thinker, on the other hand, judges an argument based on its inherent quality. The question is not <i>whether\u00a0<\/i>an argument is persuasive but whether it <i>should <\/i>be. Is the author\u2019s main point valid? Does it betray any\u00a0hidden bias? Is the supporting evidence objective and factual? Does it logically support the argument? Does the\u00a0conclusion follow from the premise? A good argument may still appeal to the reader\u2019s emotions, but it relies on\u00a0solid organization, logic, and reason to carry its point.<\/p>\n<p>In order to judge the quality of a piece of writing, the reader must learn to question the author\u2019s motives and modes of\u00a0argumentation. This includes determining the author\u2019s bias, if any; distinguishing opinion from fact; identifying what\u00a0types of evidence are used (<strong><abbr title=\"1. Facts or data gathered by means of observation or experience. 2. Scientific evidence based on numerous studies and observations\">empirical<\/abbr><\/strong> or <strong><abbr title=\"Evidence based on personal accounts rather than statistics or data\">anecdotal<\/abbr>,<\/strong> for instance) and\u00a0whether the logic is sound.<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<p class=\"lesson_subhead\"><strong> Authorial Bias<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>All expository writers take some sort of stand and seek to convince readers that their particular point of view is\u00a0superior to the range of other possibilities. When an author\u2019s stance reflects a personal (rather than a critical)\u00a0<strong><abbr title=\"A belief or judgment that is reasonable and supportable but open to debate.\">opinion<\/abbr><\/strong>, especially one that would be\u00a0difficult to reasonably support, the author is said to be biased. <strong><abbr title=\"An inclination toward a certain opinion or prejudice that is not supported by reasonable evidence\">Bias<\/abbr> <\/strong>carries a connotation of <strong><abbr title=\"A preconceived judgment or opinion, or one that is held without reasonable support\">prejudice<\/abbr><\/strong>, meaning that the support for this\u00a0opinion is often unreasonable. It is important for the reader to detect any author bias in order to objectively\u00a0judge the merit and validity of an argument.<\/p>\n<p align=\"left\">What is the precise distinction between bias, opinion, and prejudice?<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>An <strong>opinion<\/strong> is simply a judgment or belief that one holds as true; an opinionated person is\u00a0someone with pronounced and definite beliefs.<\/li>\n<li>A <strong>prejudice<\/strong> is a type of opinion that is preconceived or held without reasonable grounds of\u00a0support. A prejudiced person has pronounced beliefs that are independent of logic or reason. Opinion and\u00a0prejudice, therefore, are both conscious mental attitudes.<\/li>\n<li><strong> Bias<\/strong>, on the other hand, is defined as a tendency to think in a certain way, a literal\u00a0inclination or slant toward a certain opinion or prejudice. A biased person tends to form opinions that may or\u00a0may not be prejudiced.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>Opinion<\/strong>: \u201cJames Joyce is the greatest Irish writer. \u201d<\/p>\n<p><strong>Prejudice<\/strong>: \u201cIrish writers are glorified drunks whose work is sloppy and sentimental. \u201d<\/p>\n<p><strong>Opinion that reflects a bias<\/strong>: \u201cJames Joyce is the greatest writer in the English language because\u00a0the Irish literary tradition is stronger than any other. \u201d<\/p>\n<p><strong>Prejudice that reflects a bias<\/strong>: \u201cJames Joyce\u2019s writing is incomprehensible, the likely result of his\u00a0tendency to overindulge in Irish whiskey. \u201d<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Because bias is a tendency of thought, it governs the manner in which apparently factual information is presented.\u00a0Facts that appear to be presented fairly and objectively may therefore conceal a significant bias. The following\u00a0table describes some avenues of inquiry for recognizing author bias.<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<table class=\"lesson_text\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"10\" align=\"center\">\n<tbody>\n<tr bgcolor=\"#003366\">\n<td colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\">\n<div class=\"white_lesson_header\" align=\"center\">Recognizing Author Bias<\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td valign=\"top\" width=\"211\">\n<p class=\"lesson_subhead\"><strong> Question <\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td valign=\"top\" width=\"395\">\n<p class=\"lesson_subhead\"><strong> Significance of Response<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td valign=\"top\" width=\"211\">When and where was this piece published?<\/td>\n<td valign=\"top\" width=\"395\">Determines historical and geographical context, thus revealing any common bias\u00a0of the time or place. Articles on the Vietnam War could be expected to display varying degrees and types of\u00a0bias depending on whether they were written early in the conflict or at its height; whether the audience was\u00a0Canadian or North Vietnamese.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td valign=\"top\" width=\"211\">Who is the author?<\/td>\n<td valign=\"top\" width=\"395\">Defines the writer\u2019s perspective and provides clues about credibility. A\u00a0soldier who fought in a battle has a different point of view and level of understanding than the general who\u00a0commanded the fighting.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td valign=\"top\" width=\"211\">What supporting sources does the author quote? With whom does he or she<br \/>\ndisagree?<\/td>\n<td valign=\"top\" width=\"395\">Puts the author in context of other thinkers of the time and helps determine\u00a0credibility.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td valign=\"top\" width=\"211\">Is the author\u2019s premise logically sound? Does it betray any underlying<br \/>\nassumptions?<\/td>\n<td valign=\"top\" width=\"395\">Determines how clearly the author is able to formulate an argument and whether\u00a0the author is conscious of bias. Also helps determine source and extent of bias.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td valign=\"top\" width=\"211\">How does the author use language to make his or her point?<\/td>\n<td valign=\"top\" width=\"395\">Distinguishes objective fact from value-laden language. For example,\u00a0\u201cEntry-level workers earn relatively low wages\u201d is objective; \u201cEntry-level workers suffer conditions of\u00a0oppression\u201d reveals bias through the choice of vocabulary (\u201csuffer\u201d and \u201coppression\u201d).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td valign=\"top\" width=\"211\">How does author\u2019s version of facts or events compare to other accounts?<\/td>\n<td valign=\"top\" width=\"395\">Positively indicates author bias if discrepancies from other accounts are\u00a0consistent and significant.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<hr \/>\n<p>The following excerpt is taken from Henry David Thoreau\u2019s speech \u201cA Plea for Captain John Brown,\u201d delivered in 1859,\u00a0on the eve of the Civil War. Today, John Brown is known for leading the failed insurrection at Harper\u2019s Ferry, West\u00a0Virginia. In 1859, however, John Brown was famous for his part in the fight to make Kansas a free (rather than a\u00a0slave) state.<\/p>\n<table border=\"0\" width=\"618\" cellspacing=\"2\" cellpadding=\"10\" align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#caebea\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>When the troubles in Kansas began, he sent several of his sons thither to strengthen the party of the Free\u00a0State men, fitting them out with such weapons as he had; telling them that if the troubles should increase,\u00a0and there should be need of his, he would follow, to assist them with his hand and counsel. This, as you all\u00a0know, he soon after did; and it was through his agency, far more than any other\u2019s, that Kansas was made\u00a0free.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<section class=\"question\">\n<h4>Question<\/h4>\n<div>\n<p>Which line of inquiry would be the best method of determining whether this passage is biased?<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>Investigate how the author\u2019s version of facts or events compares to other accounts.<\/li>\n<li>Examine Thoreau\u2019s vocabulary for value-laden language.<\/li>\n<li>Research Thoreau\u2019s politics and stands on social issues.<\/li>\n<li>Learn more about John Brown and Thoreau\u2019s motivation for defending him.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<p><a class=\"button button-primary q-answer\"> Reveal Answer <\/a><\/p>\n<div class=\"q-reveal\" style=\"display: none;\">\n<p>The answer is A. While an investigation of Thoreau\u2019s politics would reveal his sympathy with Brown as an<br \/>\nabolitionist, it would not help the reader discern the bias inherent in his description of Brown\u2019s activities<br \/>\nin Kansas. Brown was instrumental in helping establish Kansas as a free state, but as a survey of other<br \/>\naccounts would show, his activities were neither as calm nor as rational as the language Thoreau uses to<br \/>\ndescribe them.<\/p>\n<p>A quick survey of other accounts shows that Brown instigated and engaged in acts of brutal violence. Thoreau<br \/>\nholds the opinion that slavery is absolutely wrong and that Brown is a heroic figure for standing up to fight<br \/>\nit. He disregards Brown\u2019s bloody past, which in 1859 already included Brown\u2019s hacking to death of five of his<br \/>\nopponents. Thoreau\u2019s opinion of Brown reveals his bias, the personal and unreasonable belief that slavery is<br \/>\n<i>so<\/i> wrong that <i>any<\/i> action taken against it is justified, no matter how savage. Once revealed,<br \/>\nthis bias calls into question Thoreau\u2019s characterization of Brown as a righteous man.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<hr \/>\n<p class=\"lesson_subhead\"><strong> Argument Support<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>The quality of an argument also depends on the type of evidence used to support it. Evidence can be categorized into\u00a0three types: <strong><abbr title=\"Statistical or historical data that is generally agreed to be true\">documented fact<\/abbr><\/strong>, <abbr title=\"1. Facts or data gathered by means of observation or experience. 2. Scientific evidence based on numerous studies and observations\">empirical<\/abbr>, and <abbr title=\"Evidence based on personal accounts rather than statistics or data\">anecdotal<\/abbr>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"lesson_subhead\"><strong>Documented Fact<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>This category includes numerical and statistical data of the kind generated by scientific experiments. In the study\u00a0of English\/Language Arts, <abbr title=\"Statistical or historical data that is generally agreed to be true\">documented facts<\/abbr> are\u00a0usually historical. Because it can be verified from authoritative outside sources, documented fact is the most\u00a0reliable form of evidence. Most persuasive exposition is based on some point of documented fact (\u201cMost Victorian\u00a0novelists were men.\u201d), which the author uses as the premise of his or her argument.<\/p>\n<p>In the Declaration of Independence, for instance, Thomas Jefferson supports his argument in favor of rebellion with\u00a0a long list of injustices perpetrated upon the American colonists, such as these:<\/p>\n<table border=\"0\" width=\"618\" cellspacing=\"2\" cellpadding=\"10\" align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#caebea\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people\u00a0would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and\u00a0formidable to tyrants only.<\/p>\n<p>He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the\u00a0depository of their public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his\u00a0measures.<\/p>\n<p>He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the\u00a0rights of the people.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>As historical data confirms, each of these claims is accurate and true. They do not represent Jefferson\u2019s\u00a0interpretation of events, nor do they reflect his personal experience or observation. Regardless of whether the\u00a0reader agrees with the rest of Jefferson\u2019s argument, the objective truth of these facts is indisputable.<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<p class=\"lesson_subhead\"><strong> Empirical Evidence<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>This category of evidence includes facts gathered from observation and experience. <strong><abbr title=\"1. Facts or data gathered by means of observation or experience. 2. Scientific evidence based on numerous studies and observations\">Empirical evidence<\/abbr><\/strong> may consist of the author\u2019s\u00a0personal observation and experience, or it may reflect the common experience of a particular group. It is the\u00a0foundation of the scientific method, which uses observed phenomenon to form and prove hypotheses. Empirical evidence\u00a0that accrues in quantity and over time, showing a pattern of consistency, eventually becomes accepted as documented\u00a0fact.<\/p>\n<p>Empirical evidence is not as reliable as documented fact for two reasons. First, empirical evidence may or may not\u00a0become accepted as documented fact\u2014it has not yet reached that level of reliability. Second, different\u00a0observers often have different experiences, and arguments supported by empirical evidence are more open to debate.\u00a0This is particularly true when the evidence represents the observations of a small group or one with distinct\u00a0differences from the general population.<\/p>\n<p>Still, a brand new observation may legitimately challenge mainstream beliefs, and neither of those reasons therefore\u00a0necessarily negates the truth of empirical evidence. Galileo, for instance, used empirical evidence to disprove the\u00a0commonly held belief that the sun revolved around the Earth.<\/p>\n<p>In the study of English\/Language Arts, empirical evidence often concerns the writer\u2019s personal observations, or the\u00a0experience of the social group to which the group belongs or with which he or she sympathizes. As long as this\u00a0evidence can be verified by outside, authoritative sources, such observations do qualify as empirical evidence (as\u00a0distinct from the anecdotal variety). Take the following example from Patrick Henry\u2019s 1775 \u201cGive\u00a0me liberty or give me death\u201d speech:<\/p>\n<table border=\"0\" width=\"618\" cellspacing=\"2\" cellpadding=\"10\" align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#caebea\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>I have but one lamp by which my feet are guided, and that is the lamp of experience. I know of no way of\u00a0judging of the future but by the past. And judging by the past, I wish to know what there has been in the\u00a0conduct of the British ministry for the last ten years to justify those hopes with which gentlemen have been\u00a0pleased to solace themselves and the House. Is it that insidious smile with which our petition has been\u00a0lately received? Trust it not, sir; it will prove a snare to your feet. Suffer not yourselves to be betrayed\u00a0with a kiss. Ask yourselves how this gracious reception of our petition comports with those warlike\u00a0preparations which cover our waters and darken our land. Are fleets and armies necessary to a work of love\u00a0and reconciliation? Have we shown ourselves so unwilling to be reconciled that force must be called in to\u00a0win back our love? Let us not deceive ourselves, sir. These are the implements of war and subjugation; the\u00a0last arguments to which kings resort.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<section class=\"question\">\n<h4>Question<\/h4>\n<div>\n<p>With what empirical evidence does Henry support his assertion that the British ministry is not to be\u00a0trusted?<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>The actions of the British government over the past ten years.<\/li>\n<li>The British government\u2019s history of subjugation in other colonies.<\/li>\n<li>Past observation that a government making preparations for war intends to wage war.<\/li>\n<li>Deteriorating diplomatic relations between the American colonists and the British crown.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<p><a class=\"button button-primary q-answer\"> Reveal Answer <\/a><\/p>\n<div class=\"q-reveal\" style=\"display: none;\"><span class=\"lesson_text\">The answer is C. Henry points out not only his past decade\u2019s experience with the British king but his recent observations of British troops and gunships that currently occupy the territories. These two pieces of empirical evidence support Henry\u2019s assertion that the British government must be judged by its actions rather than its words.<\/span><\/div>\n<\/section>\n<hr \/>\n<p class=\"lesson_subhead\"><strong> Anecdotal Evidence<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>This type of evidence consists of stories about people\u2019s observations or experiences. As such, it is sometimes\u00a0difficult to distinguish from empirical evidence. The main difference is that anecdotes are unreliable by nature.\u00a0The word \u201c<i>anecdote<\/i>\u201d comes from the Greek for \u201cunpublished items,\u201d or stories too insignificant to deserve\u00a0wide circulation; it describes personal narratives that are told for their entertainment value rather than their\u00a0truth.<\/p>\n<p>In the study of English\/Language Arts, <strong><abbr title=\"Evidence based on personal accounts rather than statistics or data\">anecdotal\u00a0evidence<\/abbr><\/strong> carries a negative connotation. It describes stories from unreliable sources, which cannot be\u00a0verified, and which are presented in support of an argument as though they were objective fact. Anecdotal evidence\u00a0may be true, but because of its inherent unreliability it is the weakest of the three evidence types.<\/p>\n<p>An author\u2019s use of anecdotal evidence in support of an argument signals one of two things. Either the author is\u00a0guilty of sloppy thinking and writing, or the anecdotal evidence is being used as a <i>sub rosa<\/i> means of\u00a0persuasion. Take the following example, from Jonathan Swift\u2019s 1729 essay, \u201cA Modest Proposal.\u201d<\/p>\n<table border=\"0\" width=\"618\" cellspacing=\"2\" cellpadding=\"10\" align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#caebea\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>It is a melancholy object to those, who walk through this great town, or travel in the country, when they\u00a0see the streets, the roads and cabin-doors crowded with beggars of the female sex, followed by three,\u00a0four, or six children, all in rags, and importuning every passenger for an alms.<\/p>\n<p>I am assured by our merchants, that a boy or a girl before twelve years old, is no saleable commodity,\u00a0and even when they come to this age, they will not yield above three pounds, or three pounds and half a\u00a0crown at most, on the exchange; which cannot turn to account either to the parents or kingdom, the\u00a0charge of nutriments and rags having been at least four times that value.<\/p>\n<p>I shall now therefore humbly propose my own thoughts, which I hope will not be liable to the least\u00a0objection.<\/p>\n<p>I have been assured by a very knowing American of my acquaintance in London, that a young healthy child\u00a0well nursed, is, at a year old, a most delicious nourishing and wholesome food, whether stewed, roasted,\u00a0baked, or boiled; and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a fricassee, or a ragout.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<section class=\"question\">\n<h4>Question<\/h4>\n<div>\n<p>What is Swift\u2019s intent in using these two pieces of anecdotal evidence?<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>To legitimately support his argument that children can be sold profitably for the table but not for the\u00a0slave market.<\/li>\n<li>To criticize a society that sells children for slaves by equating it to a cannibal tribe.<\/li>\n<li>To skirt the necessity of providing legitimate, verifiable support for his argument.<\/li>\n<li>To provide a scale of comparison between Irish, British, and American value systems, in which Americans\u00a0represent brutal savagery.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<p><a class=\"button button-primary q-answer\"> Reveal Answer <\/a><\/p>\n<div class=\"q-reveal\" style=\"display: none;\"><span class=\"lesson_text\">The answer is C. Swift\u2019s first anecdote, about the slave merchant, is credible. In 1729, slavery flourished in Great Britain, and readers of the time would not have questioned an authority who knew the going price for child slave labor. Having lulled his reader with anecdotal evidence that was likely true, Swift then uses a second story to quickly and quietly introduce the shocking subject of cannibalism. The testimony of his \u201cvery knowing\u201d acquaintance allows Swift to take as a given the fact that children are eaten in other parts of the world, leaving him free to move directly to his main point, the argument that the practice would be worthwhile in Ireland as well. <\/span><\/div>\n<\/section>\n<hr \/>\n<p class=\"lesson_subhead\"><strong> Author Opinion<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Some opinions that are reasonable and justifiable can never be proven and will never reach the status of documented\u00a0fact, regardless of how many people agree on their truth. Philosophical arguments, in particular those that attempt\u00a0to prove what is right or good, retain the status of opinion (that is, a judgment or belief held by the author) no\u00a0matter how rigorously they are supported with empirical evidence. That is because \u201cright\u201d and \u201cgood\u201d are value\u00a0judgments rather than objective fact.<\/p>\n<p>Academic exposition rarely deals with the author\u2019s personal opinion or a claim that one book or author is \u201cbetter \u201d than another. Instead, the author advances a critical opinion\u2014say, that the heroine of <i>Wuthering\u00a0Heights<\/i> is more fully realized and three-dimensional than Jane Eyre\u2014and then attempts to prove that\u00a0premise with textual evidence. A personal opinion can only be supported with recourse to personal taste. A critical\u00a0opinion, on the other hand, while always debatable, can be supported with quotations from outside sources, the\u00a0judgment of authorities in the field, and with close readings of the text itself.<\/p>\n<p>Read the following passage, taken from Thomas Jefferson\u2019s 1785 letter to Peter Carr:<\/p>\n<table border=\"0\" width=\"618\" cellspacing=\"2\" cellpadding=\"10\" align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#caebea\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Give up money, give up fame, give up science, give the earth itself and all it contains, rather than do an\u00a0immoral act. And never suppose, that in any possible situation, or under any circumstances, it is best for\u00a0you to do a dishonorable thing, however slightly so it may appear to you. Whenever you are to do a thing,\u00a0though it can never be known but to yourself, ask yourself how you would act were all the world looking at\u00a0you, and act accordingly. Encourage all your virtuous dispositions, and exercise them whenever an\u00a0opportunity arises; being assured that they will gain strength by exercise, as a limb of the body does, and\u00a0that exercise will make them habitual. From the practice of the purest virtue, you may be assured you will\u00a0derive the most sublime comforts in every moment of life, and in the moment of death. If ever you find\u00a0yourself environed with difficulties and perplexing circumstances, out of which you are at a loss how to\u00a0extricate yourself, do what is right, and be assured that that will extricate you the best out of the worst\u00a0situations.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>Jefferson\u2019s advice to Carr is based on his own observations and experience of the value of a moral life. In other\u00a0words, Jefferson\u2019s life provided him with empirical evidence that honesty and virtue always reach a better end than\u00a0immorality or deceit. At the same time, however, Jefferson\u2019s point is a matter of personal opinion; plenty of\u00a0readers would disagree with his conclusion and claim that morality makes life more difficult and unpleasant. While\u00a0many other readers would agree that Jefferson is correct, the point is philosophical\u2014it rests on a foundation\u00a0not of documented fact but on a value judgment concerning what makes life good. Agreement with Jefferson\u2019s argument\u00a0depends on whether the reader shares Jefferson\u2019s values.<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<\/section>\n<p><!-- CONTENT ENDS HERE --><\/p>\n<div class=\"advance\"><a class=\"button button-primary\" href=\"http:\/\/americanboard.org\/Subjects\/english\/functions-of-language-modes-of-exposition\">\u2b05 Previous Lesson<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"button\" href=\"http:\/\/americanboard.org\/Subjects\/english\/interpretation-of-expository-texts\">Workshop Index<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"button button-primary\" href=\"http:\/\/americanboard.org\/Subjects\/english\/logical-fallacies\">Next Lesson \u27a1<\/a><\/div>\n<p><a class=\"backtotop\" href=\"#title\">Back to Top<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>\u2b05 Previous Lesson\u00a0Workshop Index\u00a0Next Lesson \u27a1 Types of Evidence, Opinion v. Fact, &amp; Authorial Bias Objective In this lesson we will discuss how to evaluate an argument, the various types of evidence that supports logical\u00a0arguments, how to tell whether something is an opinion or fact, and authorial bias. Previously Covered: Most expository writing attempts to [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-48","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/americanboard.org\/Subjects\/english\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/48","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/americanboard.org\/Subjects\/english\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/americanboard.org\/Subjects\/english\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/americanboard.org\/Subjects\/english\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/americanboard.org\/Subjects\/english\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=48"}],"version-history":[{"count":7,"href":"https:\/\/americanboard.org\/Subjects\/english\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/48\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":434,"href":"https:\/\/americanboard.org\/Subjects\/english\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/48\/revisions\/434"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/americanboard.org\/Subjects\/english\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=48"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}